Listening Journal #8

The final song for this eight part listening journal contains only one song: Bodysnatchers by Radiohead. The song begins with a particularly thick, distorted guitar texture. The guitar riff sets a gritty tone and the repeated rhythmic idea builds continuity throughout the song.

Thom Yorke's lyrics call to mind an image of someone trapped in their own body. The subject is unable to communicate with the outside world. The message could certainly be meant to correspond to Radiohead's battle with commercialization and the more general demand on pop performers. It brings up an important point about the relative free will of entertainers in a for-profit endeavor. How much artistic freedom can musicians have when making something for mass consumption? Though Radiohead is an alternative band, they still have record label executives and producers to work with how have their own agendas.

The overall feel of the song is disorienting with tons of reverb and a thick texture. Thom Yorke's vocal delivery is fuzzy and hard to understand at first both owning to the added effects and his pop musician delivery that is less concerned with diction than expression. The song starts and ends abruptly as if to be a brief window into the disorienting, noisy yet hollow world of the singer/songwriter.

Listening Journal #7

Much like the 70s, the music of the 80s was eclectic and showed a broadening of styles marketed to diverse tastes. Still, most popular music in the 80s was heavily produced and used new electronic sounds, synthesizers, and recording techniques.

A good example of this is a number one hit from 1983: Sweet Dreams (Are Made of This). The post-disco song by the Eurythmics used a heavy beat, synthesized sounds, and loops to create a dance hit similar to disco in its insistent beat, but dissimilar in it more subdued tone. Sweet Dreams actually points more towards the emerging techno style with its tone and electronic backbone.

The popularity of the song was also boosted by the new medium of MTV. Annie Lennox, the lead singer seems cut from the same mold as David Bowie with her androgynous sex appeal. Many of the images used in the video seem symbolic. The video also uses a number of video editing tricks to create an interesting product. The song itself lends itself to hit status with a mesmerizing synth "hook" that continues throughout the song and a good deal of repetition.

While a great deal of 80s music was highly produced and utilized sythesizers, and this next song is no exception, this was also the era of virtuoso guitarists. The music instrument industry began making guitars designed for hyper fast playing and aural gymnastics. The Floyd Rose invented the locking vibrato in 1977 which allowed guitarists to completely detune their strings without causing the guitar to go out of tune. Finger tapping was utilized as well to help players play this fast style.On of the masters of this technical guitar playing was Eddie Van Halen. He used his specially made guitar to create some amazing guitar pyrotechnics and forged the way for players like Steve Vai, Joe Satriani, and Yngwie Malmsteen with solos like this:

 

Stadium rock band like Led Zeppelin and Deep Purple had influenced heavy metal bands like Van Halen who created these massive walls of sound using stacks of amplifiers and huge drum sets. For the most part, heavy metal was left on the fringe, but the 80s saw a number of albums and singles become hits. Van Halen's song Jump might be considered more of a crossover hit as the song begins, and centers around, a synthesizer. The music video for jump it more like an up close version of their stage show, and the songs form is simple with its verse, prechorus, and chorus repetition. Like most Van Halen songs, it contains a virtuosic solo by Eddie, but it does not seem like the focal point as there is also an even more elaborate synth solo to follow. 

The influence of Van Halen can also be seen in his inclusion in Michael Jackson's Thriller album. The guitar riff in Beat It is actually played by a studio guitarist, but Van Halen is added in a solo to boost the songs crossover appeal. 

Another guitar virtuoso from the 80s, with a far more controversial image is Prince. His upbringing and early life as a guitarist meant he was highly trained as a musician. He used that skill and knowledge to control his recordings to a high degree, more so even than a producer like Phil Spector. His number one single, When Doves Cry, is an example where he produced, sang all the vocal parts, and played all the instruments. The distinct guitar part that begins the song is infused with funk rhythms while being distorted like heavy metal guitar music. The song uses an eight measure groove to tie all of the various sections together.  The song's appeal lies, perhaps, in it's melding of dance and progressive rock styles while continuing the singer/songwriter tradition. While When Doves Cry does mix a number of 80s sounds, it also buck the trend of most 80s rock with its sparser sound and continuous rise and falling rather than a building to a final climax. 

The late 80s was also a time where rap music began to evolve into various branches. Public Enemy was one group that used rap music to share a message rather than just create good dance music or project a gangsta persona. The song Night of the Living Baseheads is an example of the moral authority utilized by Chuck D. The song starts with an audio recording Khalid Abdul Muhammad who set the tone of rebuke. The song sets a message against the use of crack cocaine that was prevalent in the inner cities of America. The lyrics paint the users of crack as zombie-like and rebukes the. The musical texture is immediately complex using a number of loops and DJ techniques. "Scratching" is heard as various points as well as points that drop the beat. Chuck D's delivery of lyrics is from a position of moral authority and the songs overall message stands in stark contrast to some of the gangsta rap that seems to glorify "street" life. 

While the 80s saw the rise of the virtuoso guitar player, the early 90s had a hit that stood in stark contrast in Smells Like Teen Spirit. The platinum single starts with a simple powerchord guitar riff despite its heavy metal textures. The overall form is a repetition of A, B, and C sections and the simplicity of structure lends itself to the songs various "hooks". Each section has a different feel with the A sections being quite subdued and the C section almost being shouted at the listener. The counterculture vibe, and ideal held by the group, is reminiscent of punk as is the relative simplicity of the instrumental parts. The band's tremendous success flew in the face of their anti-establishment ideals and, it could be argued, eventually led to Cobain's personal undoing. The song's title is itself a reflection of the band's ideals; it is a reference to a popular deodorant (Teen Spirit) and a friend of the band had mocked Curt Cobain by writing on the wall ("Kurt Smells Like Teen Spirit" mentioned by David Grohl in the BBC documentary The Joy of the Riff). Surely a taunt like that would only be influential to someone looking to completely avoid popular culture.

Nirvana was considered an alternative band, and rightly so with their anti-establishment ideals and musical style counter to the mainstream . However, some artists have been considered alternative for mostly non-musical reasons. k.d. lang's song Nowhere to Stand is traditional in most aspects. It's simple acoustic guitar and fiddle sound make the song unmistakably country. The lyrics, however, make a point against child abuse unlike the more idyllic themes of most country music. k.d. lang's public image, with her androgynous look and later confirmed lesbian status, also contributed to her being labeled alternative as the mainstream of country is (and was) highly connected with conservative values. The song itself is a powerful critique sung with passion (and a slightly blues influenced tone in the chorus) that points to lang's status as a great songwriter and activist. 

Listening Journal #6

The 70s were a decade of variety. A plethora of styles flooded the market both because of increased experimentation and marketing designed to target a number of audiences. During this time both AM and FM radio stations played varied music. My band colleague, who was a young man during the 70s, mentioned how the radio seemed very different than it is today. If you didn't like a particular song being played, simply move the dial and you were sure to find something different that appealed to your musical tastes.

Motown experienced great commercial success in the 60s and that continued into the 70s with the Jackson Five, Stevie Wonder, and others. Wonder, in particular, was heavily involved with Motown in the 60s as a teenager. In 1971 he negotiated a new contract with Motown at the age of 21 that allowed him full artistic freedom. The result was a string of hits. Stevie Wonder utilized modern recording techniques such as overdubbing to create songs like Superstition. On the recording, Wonder actually plays most of the instrumental parts (owing to his multi-instrumental talent and desire for control). The song uses many influences from the African tradition including repeated ostinatos and syncopation. Much of his style in Superstition is influenced by James Brown's sound from the late 60s. The "hook" synthesizer sound is immediately recognizable and comes back in all of the verses. The horn parts join midway through the verse to add intensity and play off the synth ostinato. The overall structure is reminiscent of the 12 bar blues with an extension in the verse with the repeated ostinato. The "chorus" functions much like the turnaround section of a 12 bar blues. Stevie Wonder's layering of the various horn riffs at the end is another example of clever recording. Along with James Brown, Stevie Wonder's style showcased in Superstition helped lead the way for later Funk music with it's driving rhythm, repeated ostinatos, and reliance on rhythmic complexity.

At the same time that Stevie Wonder was helping to pioneer funk music, bands like Led Zeppelin were developing rock music into a live performance and album driven style aimed mostly at young, white, males. Led Zeppelin was an eclectic band that specialized in uber-loud rock music, but were equally at home playing acoustic ballads. In fact, though Led Zeppelin is considered the pioneers of heavy metal, they were extremely eclectic in their style. Within this one song, Led Zeppelin actually blended their heavy rock sound with folk music inspired by English and Celtic mythology.

The opening guitar progression is at once recognizable. For some, the opening "hook" is TOO recognizable.

The lyrics create a quasi-spiritual experience influenced by Celtic mysticism which certainly appealed to young, white males. The opening guitar line accompanied by recorder also helps to create the mystic character of Stairway to Heaven The form is incredibly complex with a number of varying sections. The overall feel of the song is one of constant building including musical density, volume, and tempo.

While a great number of 70s rock groups appealed to young, white males, there still existed rock groups who had a more multicultural influence. Santana's Oye Como Va is a cover of a Tito Puente song. In listening to the song, one can hear influences of both the Latin tradition and experimental jazz. The song starts with ostinatos from the ever popular hammond B3 organ, bass,  and latin percussion. Santana enters with his unique guitar tone. The lyrics are of secondary importance as the track mostly acts as a vehicle for improvised solos by guitar and organ. One can imagine that a live performance of Oye Como Va would have considerable length added with solos similar to bands like the Grateful Dead, Allman Brothers, and others. Like Stairway to Heaven, the song builds with intensity, but moments of "breakdown" remind the listener of the importance of the Latin rhythm section.

Many of the 70s hits (particularly later in the decade) are Disco songs. However, Good Times owes it's particular style to both disco and funk. In many ways, disco developed out of the rhythmic drive and heavy beat of funk music. Good Times also lends it's sound to disco with the syncopated guitar playing of Nile Rodgers. Combined with the funk bass line Bernard Edwards and drumming of Tony Thompson, the rhythm section creates a groove that is perfect for dancing. Once again, the lyrics are of secondary importance. Of particular importance is the bass line that directly influenced songs like Another One Bites The Dust  and bands like INXS, and the song itself was sampled in the song Rapper's Delight.
(watch 34:22)

In a way somewhat similar to funk and disco of the time, The Talking Heads' Psycho Killer begins with an insistent drum and bass pulse. The two guitar parts join soon after have a complex interlocking pattern. At this point, the song departs the feel of the light, easy dance music of the 70s. The lyrics of Psycho Killer are disturbing and sung in a schizophrenic manner. The song is especially disturbing given the "Son of Sam" killing spree taking place the year of the song's release. The simplicity of the parts show the minimalist tendencies of punk music, and the recording quality is reminiscent of garage bands of the time rather than the highly produced music of the psychedelic era or even Stevie Wonder's multi-tracking and overdubbing of the early 70s. The song devolves into a deranged, distorted guitar solo that conjures up images of psychosis with strange microphone sounds and almost inaudible vocal utterances. A song like Psycho Killer has less to do with the guitar bravado or over-processed music that we usually consider 80s popular music than it is related to grunge music like Smells Like Teen Spirit. 

Listening Journal #5

Any survey of popular music in the 60s would be incomplete without some inclusion of Phil Spector. His records made a Phillies were immensley popular and many have stood the test of time. Be My Baby performed by the Ronettes is no exception. One cannot mistake the "wall of sound" with lush instrumentation including a variety of percussion, strings, and pianos. However, that does not mean that sound is always loud and never changes. Spector does a masterful job of making the vocals ever present and clear. Each section also contains a change in overall texture. The song begins with the unmistakable bass drum beat and snare and tambourine on beat four followed closely by pianos,  maracas, and castanets. Their presence on this recording is less a Latin style influence than is is a textural inclusion into the wall of sound. Halfway through the verse there is a chordal shift accompanied by saxophones. The chorus includes strong vocal harmony in response to the lead singer's "Be My Baby." The second doesn't relax back into the timbre of the first verse. Instead, it ramps up the sound with added vocal harmony chords. The second chorus is followed by a string iteration of the first half of the verse followed by another chorus. After the third chorus there is a striking drop down to the opening texture of bass drums before a final chorus with fade out. The lyrics are simple and carry very little extra meaning, but that is not the point of this song. Much like earlier Tin Pan Alley songs, the lyrics and form are simple and therein lies much of the songs appeal. It's amazing to listen to a Phil Spector song with it's large number of instruments. It would be difficult to have students do a listening project to identify ALL of the instruments heard in Be My Baby, but recording prowess of Phil Spector ensures that the vocal part is heard clearly and the instrumentation is not overwhelming.

Of course, the biggest band to cover in a tour of the 60s is the Beatles. their first big hit in Britain was Please, Please Me and, though it didn't have great success in America until later, it is an excellent example of early Beatles music. The song was written by Lennon and McCartney, a still unusual activity for artists at the time, and is in a simple AABA form. The song is sung through once in a quick, two minute, span. Yet, the Beatles close harmonies and simple riffs (this time played by a harmonica to start and by a guitar in transitional phrases), are in evidence. The Beatles also utilize effective rhyme schemes and wordplay; the word "please" is used both as a verb and adverb. Their influences are also recognizable with a strong call-and-response in the "come on" section, a quick instrumental introduction reminiscent of Chuck Berry is some respects, and a strong rock 'n roll drum beat (though much later, the beat reminds me of the movie "That Thing You Do!").

A Hard Days Night, a number one hit in 1964, is another example of the Beatles excellent wordplay in lyric writing. The title itself is an interesting look into the life of a band- which does it's work at night- and rhyme schemes throughout show Lennon and McCartney's gift for lyric writing. Their rhyming of two idioms in "workin like a dog" and "sleepin' like a log" is an extremely creative use of figurative language. The form of the song is yet again the traditional AABA form, but uses the 12 bar blues for the opening A sections much like a rock 'n roll artist like Fats Domino would do. However, the chord structure is not exactly 12 bar blues but the lyrics use a lyric form similar to the aab form of the blues.

The song begins with an interesting, dissonant guitar chord before launching into the opening A section. This section begins with solo voice and the already discussed blues-like lyrics. The third stanza is elongated and includes tight vocal harmonies. After two A section the B section feels very much separate from the rest of the song (rightly so as it is a bridge) and is set in a minor key. Upon returning to the A section, they repeat the first aab lyrics exactly followed by a short 12 string guitar solo and a quick repetition of the elongated b stanza and returns to B and A sections.The song ends as abruptly as it began, but this time with an arpeggiated and consonant guitar figure.

While many of the Beatles early songs are fast rockers, they were certainly not incapable of sweet Ballads. Songs like If I Fell  (also from the movie A Hard Days Night) demonstrate their ballad-singing ability. However, a song like Yesterday is a definite departure. The song is lacking the Beatles vocal harmonies and energy and uses only guitar, solo voice, and string ensemble. Yesterday pulls much of it's inspiration from Tin Pan Alley with it's AABA form and vague, romantic lyrics. However, there is a great deal of artistic language that set this song apart from other, simple ballads.

Another Beatles song that uses strings is Eleanor Rigby. Though not a smash hit, the song was certainly ground breaking. The song starts seemingly out of nowhere with "Ah..." and is accompanied by very active string parts. The song is set in E minor and only uses two chords (with the addition ofthe relative major C), but how they are used is very interesting. The song begins with C major, but the focal point is the minor chord which fits the somber lyrics of the song. I use Eleanor Ribgy as a teaching song for my guitar class since it only uses two, fairly easy, chords. Yet, the song is usually a struggle because the changes are jarring. The verse uses the chord configuration of 3 measures of E minor followed one and a half measures of C and a half measure of E minor all played twice through. The effect is one of uneasiness and is fitting with the strange, repressive lyrics. The form, the "Ah.." section at the beginning, is similar to a simple folk ballad with alternating verse and chorus. 

Another band that needs to be included in a survey of the 60s is the Beach Boys. Brian Wilson was a dynamic and forward thinking leader fro the group, and they had a big hit in Good Vibrations. Aside from the simple lyrics and subject matter, the song actually has a number of innovative aspects. From the strange, Theremin (or theremin-esque) sound to the echo effect, the song has a variety of things on which to focus. The form is complex and hard to follow with each section highly contrasting. The "I've gotta keep.." section almost feels like a different song with it's totally different texture, tempo, and overall feel. A return to the chorus is brief and has a number of contrasting features including a driving cello. Brian Wilson's composition of Good Vibrations contains developmental material as the ending section plays with ideas from the chorus. With it's ever changing musical ideas and building of intensity, it's no wonder the song was used for a very strange, but very good, movie Vanilla Sky. 

While the lyrics of Good Vibrations are not the groundbreaking part of the song, the work of Bob Dylan is almost completely focused on the artistry of the words. In addition to amazing wordplay, Like a Rolling Stone was groundbreaking in it's popularity despite length (not the usual three minute length still followed from 78 r.p.m. days), electrification of urban folk music, and dense texture. The overall form is the familiar, strophic verse-chorus form common to urban folk music. The lyrics tell a story of a young girl who is falling from a place of privilege. The strophes continue to develop the depth of the story with considerable length for a folk song and the chorus returns to remind the listener of the overall theme. For the most part, this recording sound very much like the live version would. This is a remarkable feat in a time where recording techniques and sound effects (take Good Vibrations) rule the day in the studio. Like many of the other songs in this review, Like a Rolling Stone fades out to nothing unlike many of Bob Dylan's other folk song recordings. 

Listening Journal #4

The music of post-war America is eclectic and shows the expansion of musical tastes at the time. However, a great deal of music still had it's roots in tin pan alley. Frank Sinatra's Nancy (With the Laughing Face) is an excellent example of the still popular crooning style. The song is in the conventional AABA form and demonstrates Sinatra's use of strings as accompaniment. The strings play an introduction that is also used at the end as an instrumental tag. His singing style includes long phrases and occasional use of rubato. Sinatra was a master of using the microphone as an extension of his voice.

Included in the eclectic mix of the 40s is the "jump band" style. Louis Jordan's band, the Tympany Five, was a successful group included in the new rhythm and blues designation that played in the "jump" style. Jump bands were a downsized version of a big band (necessitated by wartime shortages) that played boogie-woogie influenced music. Louis Jordan would influence an number of early rock 'n roll artists as well as later performers like James Brown.

Choo Choo Ch'Boogie was Jordan's biggest hit. The song uses 12 bar blues alternating with a 8 bar chorus. The lyrics tell the story of a man returning from the war only to find a scarcity of jobs. He ends up as a poor hobo (a character familiar from the Great Depression). The song's style uses a shuffle beat, saxophone riffs and solos (including a introductory imitation of a train whistle), and rhythm section to create an up-tempo feel. Jump bands were on the "hotter" end of the R&B spectrum which included all sorts of southern-influenced music.

Chuck Berry was an extremely influential early rock 'n roll musician. His first big hit, Maybellene, was a synthesis of country (the song was modeled after a country song called Ida Red) and rhythm and blues. Berry used the 12 bar blues in many of his hits and Maybellene is no exception. He also used blue notes and a boogie pattern on his guitar to drive the song forward. The 12 bar form is maintained throughout, but the chord changes are nonexistent in the verses which helps to create  more distinction between the verse and chorus. The lyrics are immediately appealing to young people with fast cars and a pretty girl. Chuck Berry tells the story of a young man chasing after Maybellene in his "V-8 Ford" and leaves the listener to imagine what happens after he catches her at the end of the final verse.

Another rock 'n roll musician with widespread influence is Little Richard. His song Long Tall Sally is similar to Maybellene in that it uses the 12 bar blues structure. Little Richard also adapts the form to create contrast between a verse a chorus structure; the first four bars constitute the verse while the remaining eight are the chorus. This particular structure is widely used in early rock 'n roll songs. A great deal of Little Richard's appeal comes from his shouting style of singing and his outrageous stage presence. Unlike Chuck Berry, Little Richard led his band from the piano and used the boogie-woogie style developed by Count Basie and others. Richard's band is similar to a jump band using saxophone and rhythm section. 

Like Long Tall Sally, Elvis Presley's hit Don't Be Cruel used the 12 bar blues as its underlying structure. However, the verse is the longer (eight measures) of the two sections. His vocal style is a blending of rock and country sounds and is indicative of the rockabilly style he and others (Buddy Holly and Gene Vincent) are known for. The blending of styles is also found in the strong backbeat and repeated electric guitar riff in the introduction. Like much of the rock 'n roll produced by major labels, Don't Be Cruel is "sweetened" with background singing by the Jordanaires, but the song maintains it's rock 'n roll feel and tempo. 

Another important style of popular music in the 40s and 50s is vocal harmony groups. Stemming from the black gospel music tradition, vocal harmony groups infused their music with tight harmonies and gospel treatment of melodies. The Coasters song Charlie Brown, written by Lieber and Stoller (they wrote many classics including Hound Dog), is a prime example of the style. Lieber and Stoller pulls from a number of influences in the construction of Charlie Brown. The form is the familiar AABA, but the A sections are a 12 bar blues with a small form of their own similar to the verse-chorus form of Don't Be Cruel. The majority of the song is sung in tight harmony with one line spoken by the bass singer. The saxophone plays a call-and-response riff during the chorus. The lyrics are aimed at young people with it's story about a class clown. It's not hard to see Charlie Brown's popularity with its lyrics, fast tempo, and novel use of spoken word by the bass singer.

Listening Journal #3

Blues

No aural survey of American vernacular music would be complete without St. Louis Blues. Penned by W.C. Handy  in 1914, no popular song has been recorded more! The version in this listening journal is performed by Bessie Smith and Louis Armstrong.
 

St. Louis Blues is relatively complex in comparison to other popular songs. The overall form, AABA with the return A being more of a C, is similar to other Tin Pan alley songs we've heard so far. Handy melded the blues with Tin Pan alley writing to create St. Louis Blues. The A sections are in a twelve bar blues form (a form hugely influential in American vernacular music). The B section is in a contrasting minor key and is the best known part of the song. The lyrics of the A section are more general while the B section paints a picture of the "St. Louis Woman." The B section also contains elements of Latin music like the habanera to create an "exotic" feel.

Bessie Smith's recording is faithful to the original in many ways, but she takes some freedoms with more blue notes and stretched lyrical moments. Louis Armstrong's call-and-response melodies occur throughout the song and seem to be commenting on Bessie's lyrics. Besides vocals and trumpet, accompaniment is provided by a reed organ. It is interesting to hear organ rather than piano, but it does help to reinforce the mood of the song.

While St. Louis Blues presents a more formal blues style, country blues recordings are more indicative of the roots of blues music found in the Mississippi Delta. Blind Lemon Jefferson was the first recorded country blues artist. From Texas, Jefferson's style still reflects the Mississippi roots of the blues. That Black Snake Moan uses the AAB lyric form of the blues, but the musical background from the guitar is more riff based rather than clear twelve bar blues. Jefferson stretches the tempo at will and creates moments of tension with loudly sung blue notes.

The lyrics of That Black Snake Moan are very different from narrative, Anglo ballads (there is no clear order to the lyrics). The words seem to address a specific person and then the audience at various points. The sexual nature of the lyrics is typical of blues text. Blind Lemon Jefferson's song may have had some appeal for this very reason as most songs of the time were of idyllic times and places.

Swing

The rise of swing music can largely be credited to Fletcher Henderson as far as inspiration is concerned. Before Henderson, the syncopated dance bands of the 20s were smaller and used arrangements more suited to upright, ballroom dancing. Henderson's band was larger (using the now traditional big band numbers found in high schools across the country) and had a far different style that can be heard in songs like Wrappin' It Up.

The larger size of Henderson's band allowed him to write songs that included more call-and-response elements. The various sections can be heard having a musical "conversation" throughout. The very beginning includes a saxophone melody with brass "hits" in response. The swing style is also different from the dixieland style with less polyphonic textures. Wrappin' It Up also includes a number of improvised solos common in jazz and are the hallmark of great jazz bands. The swing style of Henderson's song is also found in a more flowing beat rather than the 1 and 3 emphasis of syncopated dance music. The bass "walks" while the drummer has a ride cymbal pattern. This smoother style was better suited to swing dancing.

The form of the song is ABAC repeated four times. Each repetition is fresh since they are varied in texture; sometimes a section is a solo while other times the same section is call-and-response. Wrappin It Up is a prime example of swing era music. Of course that is no accident, Henderson wrote arrangements that Benny Goodman's band performed. Goodman would go on to spark the swing craze while playing Henderson's charts.

One example of a Fletcher Henderson arrangement played by Goodman's big band is Taking a Chance on Love. Originally a Tin Pan Alley song by Vernon Duke. Henderson arranged the song which became a Billboard number one. Once again, Henderson uses call-and-response- techniques between the sections. He also includes harmonized melody and soli sections.

The vocal section, sung by Helen Forrest, is the familiar AABA (32 bar) form of Tin Pan Alley songs. Helen, a female crooner, sings the song sweetly and clearly. Big band era singers were not the headline names seen in today's music. Instead, the band leader received top billing.  The vocal section is preceded and followed by statements of the melody by the band. The opening sections are odd numbers of measures, but Henderson makes it sound completely natural. Overall, the song is heard three times creating a larger ABA form with the middle section being a vocal rendering of the melody.

Of the swing era recordings, the most popular, and the best know today, is Glen Miller's In The Mood.  The opening riff is instantly recognizable, and , though Miller didn't write it, helps to set the "mood" for this song. The building block of this piece is the twelve bar blues which alternates with an 8 bar bridge phrase. Like the songs heard above, In The Mood has all the important elements of a swing era song. Call-and-response, solos, and walking bass are all evident. The song has a striking simplicity using an easy, syncopated sax melody for the twelve bar blues sections.

Like many jazz critics, I've been highly critical of the simplicity of In The Mood. However, a closer listening reveals a well written song. An "ear worm" like this must contain simple elements that are catchy and memorable. Despite the easy melody built around three chords, the ending helps to make this song very innovative. The repeated melody gets ever quieter and the trombone drone helps to elongate phrases. After the quietest repetition, the song ends with a loud tag. This surprise ending may not be surprising in a second hearing, but Americans at the time needed an escape from the reality of war. Music, in many ways, still acts as an escape for many people.


I'm only going to take a moment to note my favorite composer of the swing era. Though he didn't enjoy as much success as the white bandleaders of the time, Duke Ellington was ultra-prolific and wrote music of outstanding complexity and artistry. From his suites (like his treatment of Peer Gynt) to his "jungle music", Ellington has music that really stands the test of time and shows jazz as an art form. His best known song, "Take the A-Train," showcases the same elements of the swing era as the other songs noted above, but has a certain vibrancy and energy. The song was written by Billy Strayhorn, a long time collaborator with Duke, and has an AABA form (yes, Tin Pan Alley). The two sections are contrasting in key. The solo occurs over the chords of the entire form much like a jazz combo. The trumpet solo in the original song was written out and embellished, bu this solo is elongated and improvised (by my band director from high school's son Ryan Kisor no less!).

In addition to the ubiquity of big bands in the swing era, harmony groups like the Andrew's Sisters, Ink Spots, and Mills Brothers were popular. Harmony groups had been around for quite some time and often sang popular times including Stephen Foster songs. The harmony group concept still continues today and it's influence can be seen in the music of Motown and others. The Mills Brothers had a hit in Paper Doll.

The song is a polished rendition of an old Tin Pan Alley song by Johnny S. Black. The lyrics are quite old-fashioned and tell of a young man who would rather deal with a paper version of girls than the real thing. The song begins with a solo voice and guitar accompaniment supported by rich harmonies in a slow tempo. After this first statement of the melody, the song continues in double time. The Mills Brothers go from solo voice to close harmonies (reminiscent of a big band sax soli) to unison voice with precision. The Mills Brother's rendition of Paper Doll showcases their high level of vocal skill and uses a lighter treatment of the song to avoid too much sentimentality. They used this technique of starting lyrically then adding a double time feel in more than just this song. Using a musical concept over and over is not only used by the Mills Brothers, other groups like the Ink Spots (who used a spoken treatment of the lyrics by their bass singer in many of their songs) used common formal arrangements of their songs multiple times. This likely helped the listener find familiarity from one song to another. We can see many artists re-using material from hits to make more songs. In fact, fans often become angry when the sound of their favorite artists change. From Bob Dylan to Miley Cyrus, popular music fans like their music to stay the same and their artists to be predictable. A quote from John Lennon in the Anthology gives an inside look at how artists might feel about this:

"The Help! single sold much better than the two before it: I Feel Fine and Ticket To Ride. But there were still a lot of fans who didn't like Help!. They said, 'Ah, The Beatles are dropping us. This isn't as good as A Hard Day's Night.' So you can't win. Trying to please everybody is impossible - if you did that, you'd end up in the middle with nobody liking you. You've just got to make the decision about what you think is your best, and do it.

People think of us as machines. They pay 6s 8d for a record and we have to do what they say - like a jack-in-the-box. I don't like that side of it much. Some people have got it all wrong. We produce something, something great every time. The onus is on the public to decide whether they like it or not. It's annoying when people turn round and say, 'But we made you, you ungrateful swines.' I know they did, in a way, but there's a limit to what we're bound to live up to, as if it's a duty."

from http://www.beatlesbible.com/songs/help/

Listening Journal #2

Listening Journal #2

            The early 20^th century saw a craze for ragtime music continue and the development of jazz. Syncopated rhythms were strange but exhilarating to white Americans at the time who experienced a disorienting effect (Starr & Waterman, 2014, p. 80). Social dance was a large part of musical experience, and Vernon and Irene Castle helped to make ballroom dancing popular for Americans. Castle House Rag is one of the songs composed by James Reese Europe for the Castles. The lightly syncopated music was designed to accompany the Castle’s dance routines. The instrumentation in the 1914 recording includes violins, cellos, banjos, brass, and percussion instruments. The structure of the song in fairly complicated with six distinct sections. However, there is a larger loud-soft-loud structure that helps the piece feel complete without a return to the A theme. The audio recording is poor owing to the fact that it was recorded before the invention of microphones. The ensemble would have to record in front of a large cone similar to the one seen on phonographs.

            Some of the earliest jazz recordings were done by King Oliver and his Creole Jazz Band. Though he wasn’t the first to have a record labeled as jazz, the Original Dixieland Jazz Band has that distinction (Starr and Waterman, 2014, p. 86), Oliver’s recording of Dipper Mouth Blues is a better representation of a mature New Orleans jazz. The song has polyphony for a majority of the time and features cornet and clarinet solos. King Oliver is best known as the mentor of Louis Armstrong who went on to start his own band and helped to shape the improvisation and style of jazz musicians to follow. The song has three sections (A, B, and C) with a return to the A section as a “shout chorus.” The appeal of this song to white Americans audiences is understandable coming from the earlier ragtime craze. The syncopation is smooth and the style is similar to the ragtime music that came before. The improvised solos and polyphonic texture do set it apart from earlier music and are indicative of New Orleans jazz.

            Alongside the development of jazz music, a great number of “standards” were written by Tin Pan Alley composers. The bestselling record of this era is Gene Austin’s My Blue Heaven. Austin made great use of the microphone and was the one of the first “crooners.” This song is also indicative of a common Tin Pan Alley form. The song begins with a “hook” that lets the listener know immediately what song they are hearing. The typical verse-refrain form is used; a short verse creates a peaceful setting and sets up the AABA refrain. My Blue Heaven was widely popular because of its familiar form, the soft voice on Gene Austin, and the idyllic lyrics that call to mind the “American Dream.”

            In contrast to Gene Austin’s “crooning,” Al Jolson’s recording of April Showers showcases his booming vocals more suited to the stage. In two separate recordings (1921 and 1932) you can hear Jolson’s vocal style. In the first, it is well suited to the primitive recording of the time. However, in the 1932 recording microphones were well established, but Jolson still used his stage voice. In fact, he seemingly embellishes his style to separate himself from the “crooner” style. The song has the same verse-refrain and instrumental hook to begin the song, but the refrain uses an ABAC pattern. The lyrics use imagery from nature (much like My Blue Heaven). The lyrics also had separate meaning for the audience of the prosperous 20s and the later 1932 recording in the Depression. Jolson’s style, while over the top theatrical, did make a profound influence on later entertainers who saw the value of the performer as well as the song itself.

            Another performer who sang in a “theatrical” style is Ethel Merman. Her recording of Gershwin’s I Got Rhythm showcases her ability to “belt” a song. Merman shapes the melody with moments of slowing down, longer held notes, and a final high note. The song itself is of great importance. I Got Rhythm follows the typical verse-refrain format of the other Tin Pan Alley songs discussed before. Additionally, the verse is often skipped in later recordings as was common with songs in this style. However, Gershwin’s verse is of great importance to the overall song and has its own structure (AAB leading directly into the refrain). The refrain has continuous syncopation and propels forward with velocity. The lyrics are highly creative, but feel effortless. The constant offbeat rhythm concludes with an on-the-beat repetition of the rhetorical question “Who could ask for anything more?” I Got Rhythm has been performed by a wide variety of performers and is a quintessential “standard.” The chord structure of the refrain has even given rise to a number of classic jazz tunes particularly bebop jazz songs like Anthropology. The use of I Got Rhythm’s chord structure is so common that the chords are called “rhythm changes.”

Listening Journal #1

Listening Journal #1

                When initiating a discussion of the development of American popular music, it is important to look at a wide variety of music from a multitude of traditions. One of the important traditions is “old time” music. “Barbra Allen” is a song from the British ballad tradition and is considered part of “old time” music. Ballads tell a story in a series of verses, and “Barbra Allen” fits this description. The song tells a story of unrequited love. Through the years, individual performers have altered the lyrics and embellished the melody to fit their audience. Coming from an aural tradition, it is common to have details change over time, but the main idea and verse format have stayed the same.

            “Old time” music also includes the string band tradition. “Soldier’s Joy” is one of the most important songs in the fiddle repertoire and has enjoyed popular success at various points in history. The song consists of alternating A and B sections, similar to a verse chorus structure seen in a large number of popular songs. Much like “Barbara Allen,” there have been a number of changes to “Soldier’s Joy” over time; lyrics have been added and the melody embellished at times. Though not found in the recordings by The Skillet Lickers or Tommy Jarrell, American string bands have used the banjo, and instrument coming from the African tradition. Even in the earliest days of American music, there has been a mixing of musical traditions. When exploring the “Old Time” tradition with students, it would be informative to explore both how it has influenced later music, and how “old time” music in America has its own influences.

            The banjo was an important instrument in the African American tradition, but has been widely adopted by country and bluegrass music as well. The banjo has its roots in Africa and has been traced back to the Akonting from Senegal. Bela Fleck, a virtuoso banjo player, documented the development of the banjo in his film “Throw Down Your Heart.”

I have used this video in my teaching of general music were I taught a world music unit and transitioned student’s learning of African and Latin traditions into a Rock ‘n Roll unit later in the year.

            Dink Robert’s version of “Coo Coo” is sung and accompanied by solo banjo. Robert comes from the Piedmont tradition and was a “songster” who played a style of music that predates the blues. Dink Robert used a particular style of plucking the banjo with fingers to create a polyrhythmic sound influenced by the African tradition. However, you can definitely hear the “seeds” of blues music in his melodic use of “blue” notes. The song has an alternating A B style similar “Soldier’s Joy” except the B section is a banjo response. The call and response aspect of this song is quintessentially African and finds its roots in the singing traditions of African slaves. Like “Barbara Allen,” “Coo Coo” is narrative in nature, but Robert changes perspective from one verse to the next.

            Call and Response is also found in the Lighting Washington version of “Long John.” This song is an example of a work song where music was used to coordinate manual labor. This tradition comes from the African slave’s work, but could also be seen in the work of prison culture. “Long John” is also narrative in nature; it tells the story of a legendary man who escaped law enforcement. The singing style is raspy in nature. This type of timbre is emotive in the African tradition and has influenced the singing styles of blues and rock singers in American music. Elvis Presley, the king of rock ‘n roll, helped to popularize a raspy vocal tone in a time where the smooth vocal style of singers like Pat Boone were more mainstream.

            The ballad tradition noted in “Barbara Allen” also found variation in the African American tradition. “Stagolee,” sung by Mississippi John Hurt, tells the story of “Stagger Lee.” Many of the African American ballads told stories of bad men who stood up to authority. This had a cathartic effect as the African population felt the cruelty of racism, but also reminded listeners of the danger of violence in the community. It contains the narrative verse style of the ballad, but it also has the three line verse and harmonies of the blues. Like Dink Robert, Hurt used a plucking technique that created a polyrhythmic, syncopated texture stemming from the African tradition. In later listening journals, we will explore the impact of African style on popular music. Polyrhythm, raspy tone, and the blues would greatly impact jazz, rock, and pop styles. Latin music and its rhythmic drive also influenced the development of American music.

            In particular, the Tango was extremely popular and influential. “La Cumparasita” is the best known tango composition and has been recorded by a variety of musicians. Carlos Gardel put his unique stamp on the song with a “bel canto” style of singing and an aggressive, but not overpowering guitar accompaniment. The lyrics are arranged in a verse and chorus typical of much popular music. Fransisco Canaro’s version includes the bandoneon, a reedy sounding cousin to the accordion, and habanera rhythms. Violins, double bass, piano, and drums set complete the typical tango ensemble.

            Besides the Tango, Afro-Cuban music has also been influential; there is an entire sub-genre of jazz popularized by musicians like Dizzy Gillespie. “Eigue Nigue” is a rumba and includes a variety of percussion instruments, a hallmark of Afro-Cuban music. The African influence is apparent in the polyrhythmic textures of the percussion instruments and the call and response vocal writing. The overall song structure includes three sections; the final section contains the call and response element. Unlike most of the songs thus far, “Eigue Nigue” is not narrative. Musical interest is built on rhythmic complexity rather than a story.

            The Latin musical tradition also includes the music of Mexico. A melting pot of its own, Mexico’s musical tradition includes influences from brass bands (banda), country music, and English ballads (corridos). The most famous style of Mexican music is mariachi. Considered the national style, mariachi originated in Jalisco and has a number of traditions. The popular uniform of the mariachi actually originated as an insult to the high class ranchers, but has become a symbol of the musical style. “Son de la Negra” sung by the popular Mariachi Vargas is an excellent example of mariachi music. The style, includes vocal shouts, major third harmonies, and guitar-like instruments particular to mariachi. The lyric text of “Son de la Negra” is based on the couplet and the rhythmic beat is a driving triple feel. The polyrhythmic nature of Latin music does have African influences owning to Moorish occupation in Spain. Mariachi music has recently become a popular and competitive option for string programs in the southwest. Adding a mariachi group to course offerings may be an excellent way to get students of Mexican descent to join school music programs. Including mariachi music in instruction in smaller ways may also help to legitimize an important musical style in the school context.

            Considered the first popular music composer in America, Stephen Foster was the composer of a great number of popular songs. His compositional style directly influenced Tin Pan Alley and later composers of popular music with his ability to write an effective “hook.” An example of his sentimental “Irish” style, “Jeanie with the Light Brown Hair” is also an example of the AABA melodic structure which became extremely popular in the early twentieth century. A study of Stephen Foster can be an excellent part of the music curriculum. His song structure and “hook” writing can inform student performance and learning of popular music. His tragically short life is also a “jumping off point” for a discussion of copyright.

            Though Stephen Foster was very popular, the first mega-hit was “After the Ball.” The lyric style includes a chorus in addition to the ballad-like verses that tell a story. The song was written by Charles K Harris who could not write or read music. He used a traveling theater production to help boost his song’s popularity much like Tin Pan Alley did with vaudeville acts. John Phillip Sousa’s performance of the song helped boost the song’s popularity. Harris declined an offer to buy his song and developed his own publishing company much in the same way small record labels blossomed in the rock era. 

Timeline

The following timeline documents some of the important events in the history of American popular music. Starting with the writing of Jim Crow, follow the development of popular music, important technologies, and hits songs.